In Western Marxism, José Guilherme Merquior presents a richly layered critique of a complex intellectual movement that sought to reimagine Marxism through a cultural and ideological lens, distinct from the economic determinism of Soviet Marxism. Merquior’s analysis begins by locating the origins of Western Marxism in early 20th-century critiques of orthodox Marxism, a divergence led by figures like Georg Lukács, Antonio Gramsci, and others who found Marxist-Leninist thought limited in its understanding of culture and ideology. Where Soviet Marxism focused predominantly on the socio-economic base, Western Marxism turned its gaze to the superstructure, analyzing the subtle and pervasive power of culture, ideology, and human consciousness in shaping social reality.
Merquior traces the philosophical underpinnings of Western Marxism, beginning with its roots in Hegelian dialectics, which posited reality as a dynamic, self-developing process. This was a heritage embraced by thinkers like Lukács, who sought to infuse Marxism with a more Hegelian sensibility, viewing social structures and class consciousness as deeply intertwined with culture. Lukács’ theory of reification—where human relations in capitalist societies are obscured by an impersonal objectification—becomes foundational in understanding the Western Marxist preoccupation with alienation and critique of bourgeois society. Gramsci further expanded this vision, stressing the role of cultural hegemony as a mechanism for ideological dominance, where consent to the ruling class’s ideology is manufactured and maintained across civil society’s institutions, including education, religion, and media.
Merquior then explores the theoretical innovations of the Frankfurt School, particularly in the works of Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and later Jürgen Habermas. Adorno and Horkheimer, influenced by both Freud and Marx, pioneered a form of critical theory that highlighted the irrationality embedded in Enlightenment rationality itself—a paradox wherein the project of human emancipation had become an instrument of domination under advanced capitalism. This “Dialectic of Enlightenment” unveils how capitalist modernity perpetuates a dehumanizing culture industry, mass-producing entertainment that dulls the revolutionary potential of the masses and consolidates the status quo. Their analysis of cultural production and consumer society remains a seminal contribution to Western Marxist thought, underscoring how ideology permeates even the most seemingly innocuous forms of cultural consumption.
Louis Althusser, representing another key figure in Merquior’s study, broke from traditional humanist readings of Marx by proposing a structuralist interpretation. Althusser argued that individuals are “interpellated” by ideological state apparatuses, such as schools and media, forming subjects that unconsciously reproduce the conditions of their own domination. In this view, ideology functions not merely as a set of ideas but as a material force embedded in social institutions, shaping individuals from birth and ensuring compliance with the socio-economic system.
Merquior also examines how Western Marxists grappled with existential questions of freedom and human agency within an oppressive socio-economic framework, with Jean-Paul Sartre, for instance, striving to reconcile existentialism with Marxist theory. Sartre’s existential Marxism emphasized the tension between individual freedom and social determinism, proposing that individuals could still resist and transcend structural limitations through acts of radical authenticity and revolt.
Throughout Western Marxism, Merquior juxtaposes these theorists’ perspectives, drawing out a central critique: that Western Marxism, while intellectually rich, often veered towards abstraction and self-reflexive irony, losing its grip on praxis and concrete social change. The movement’s inclination toward cultural pessimism and its ambivalence toward modernity, Merquior suggests, sometimes mirrored romantic critiques of industrial society more than revolutionary Marxist politics. This ambivalence appears most starkly in Herbert Marcuse’s vision of a one-dimensional society, wherein the all-encompassing reach of consumer culture obliterates critical thought and revolutionary action. For Merquior, Marcuse’s theorization underscores Western Marxism’s dilemma—an ideological critique so severe that it risks immobilizing political agency, alienating itself from the working class it seeks to emancipate.
Merquior’s approach is both analytical and critical, and he does not hesitate to interrogate the epistemological and methodological assumptions that underlie Western Marxism. He highlights a tension in this school of thought between the desire to maintain a scientific materialist analysis of society and an increasing drift towards cultural critique and philosophical speculation. By examining the intellectual backgrounds and political commitments of Western Marxist theorists, Merquior sheds light on how this movement managed to exert a deep influence on contemporary social thought while struggling with its own internal contradictions.
Finally Merquior acknowledges the significant contributions of Western Marxism in broadening the scope of Marxist analysis, particularly in its emphasis on culture and ideology. However, he argues that this came at the cost of distancing itself from the practical, materialist analysis of economic conditions that are fundamental to classical Marxism. Merquior’s Western Marxism remains an essential reading for those seeking to understand the evolution of Marxist theory in the West, offering a comprehensive and critical history of an intellectual movement that sought to transcend the limitations of Soviet dogmatism and engage with the complex realities of capitalist culture.
Simon Gros 
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